- Endings show the person: -ō/-m, -s, -t, -mus, -tis, -nt.
- Present: sum, es, est, sumus, estis, sunt.
- Imperfect: eram, erās, erat, erāmus, erātis, erant.
- Future: erō, eris, erit, erimus, eritis, erunt.
- sum, esse
- to be
- personal ending
- the ending that shows the person: -ō/-m, -s, -t, -mus, -tis, -nt
- hodiē
- today
- mox
- soon
- nūper
- recently
Watch out: Mixing up eris (you will be) and erās (you were). The future has -i- (eris, erit, erimus, eritis); the imperfect has -a- (erās, erat, erāmus, erātis).
- Infinitive -āre: 1st conjugation; -ēre: 2nd; -ere: 3rd; -īre: 4th.
- Present = stem + personal ending: amō, amās, amat, amāmus, amātis, amant.
- moneō keeps its e: moneō, monēs, monet …
- One Latin present = "I love", "I am loving" or "I do love".
- conjugation
- a group of verbs that share one pattern
- infinitive
- the "to …" form: amāre, to love
- stem
- the infinitive without -re: amā-, monē-
- habeō, habēre
- have
- videō, vidēre
- see
Watch out: Missing the -e- in the second conjugation's "I" form: wrong: monō. The first conjugation contracts (amā-ō → amō), but the second keeps both vowels: moneō, videō, habeō.
- Imperfect = stem + -bā- + ending.
- First person ends in -m: amābam.
- Meaning: was …ing, used to …, kept …ing.
- Same pattern for the 1st and 2nd conjugations.
- tense sign
- letters added to show the tense: -bā- for the imperfect
- imperfect
- was doing / used to do
- saepe
- often
- arō, arāre
- plough
Watch out: Translating the imperfect as a single finished action ("he ploughed once"). It shows something in progress or repeated: was ploughing, used to plough. The completed past comes later, with the perfect tense.
The future: will do Intermediate Latin · Verbs: the present system
- Future = stem + -bi- + ending: amābō, amābis, amābit, amābimus, amābitis, amābunt.
- Endings match erō, eris, erit.
- -bā- = past (imperfect); -bi-/-bu- = future.
- future
- will do, shall do
- -bi-
- the future tense sign in the 1st and 2nd conjugations
- crās
- tomorrow
- moneō, monēre
- advise, warn
Watch out: Confusing -bant (imperfect: were) and -bunt (future: will). One vowel changes the time: vocābant they were calling, vocābunt they will call.
- Adjectives of nearness, friendship, pleasing and fitness, and their opposites, take the dative.
- The dative answers "to whom?" or "for what?".
- A singular first-declension -ae that the quality is directed to is dative.
- amīcus
- friendly (to); as a noun, friend
- inimīcus
- hostile (to); as a noun, enemy
- grātus
- pleasing (to)
- idōneus
- suitable (for)
- fīnitimus
- neighbouring (to)
Watch out: Reading the dative as "of": rēgīnae grātus is "pleasing to the queen", not "the queen's pleasing". With these adjectives, a singular first-declension noun in -ae that the quality is directed to is the dative (though -ae can also be a nominative plural elsewhere).
- regō: regō, regis, regit, regimus, regitis, regunt.
- audiō: audiō, audīs, audit, audīmus, audītis, audiunt.
- 3rd: short e → i, and u before -nt. 4th: long ī, with -iunt.
- -ēre (long) = 2nd; -ere (short) = 3rd.
- regō, regere
- rule
- dūcō, dūcere
- lead
- mittō, mittere
- send
- audiō, audīre
- hear
- veniō, venīre
- come
Watch out: Treating regere like monēre because both infinitives end in -ere. Check the vowel: monēre has a long ē (second conjugation: monēmus); regere has a short e (third: regimus). A dictionary shows it with a macron or by giving the full forms.
- 3rd and 4th conjugation imperfect: regēbam, audiēbam (…ēbā…).
- crēdō, faveō, noceō, pāreō, persuādeō, resistō and studeō take the dative.
- Think "give belief / obedience / resistance to".
- crēdō, crēdere (+ dat.)
- believe, trust
- noceō, nocēre (+ dat.)
- harm
- pāreō, pārēre (+ dat.)
- obey
- resistō, resistere (+ dat.)
- resist
- studeō, studēre (+ dat.)
- be eager for, study
Watch out: Using the accusative after these verbs: wrong: rēgīnam pārent. Think "give obedience to the queen": rēgīnae pārent.
- 3rd and 4th conjugation future: -am, -ēs, -et, -ēmus, -ētis, -ent.
- 4th keeps its i: audiam, audiēs …
- Third-conjugation future looks like second-conjugation present: check the conjugation.
- regam, regēs, reget
- I shall / you will / he will rule
- audiam, audiēs, audiet
- I shall / you will / he will hear
- nūntius, -ī, m.
- messenger, message
Watch out: Reading regēs or mittet as present. In the second conjugation monēs is present, but in the third regēs is future. Check the infinitive: regere (short e) is third conjugation, so regēs = you will rule.
- -iō verbs (capiō, faciō, fugiō, iaciō, rapiō) are third conjugation.
- They take an i where audiō has two vowels together: capiunt, capiēbam, capiam.
- Imperative: stem for one person (amā), + -te for more (amāte).
- Short forms: dīc, dūc, fac.
- capiō, capere
- take, seize
- faciō, facere
- make, do
- fugiō, fugere
- flee
- imperative
- the mood for orders: amā! amāte!
Watch out: Calling capiō fourth conjugation because of the -iō. Check the infinitive: capere (short e) is third, so the present is capis, capit, not wrong: capīs, capīt.
- Passive = the subject receives the action.
- Endings: -r, -ris, -tur, -mur, -minī, -ntur (present "I": -or).
- Same tense signs: -bā- (imperfect), -bi- (future).
- amor, amābar, amābor: I am / was being / shall be loved.
- active voice
- the subject does the action
- passive voice
- the subject receives the action
- -tur, -ntur
- passive "he / she / it", "they"
- vāstō, vāstāre
- lay waste
- oppugnō, oppugnāre
- attack
Watch out: Missing the passive because the stem looks familiar. Check the ending: vocant (they call) but vocantur (they are called); vocābit (he will call) but vocābitur (he will be called).
- Passive endings go on the tenses you know: regor, regēbar, regar.
- regō "you": present regeris, future regēris.
- capiō: capior, capiuntur like audiō; caperis, capitur like regō.
- Passive infinitive: amārī, monērī, regī, capī, audīrī.
- regī
- to be ruled
- audīrī
- to be heard
- capī
- to be taken
- present passive infinitive
- "to be …ed"
Watch out: Making the passive infinitive of the third conjugation like the others: wrong: regerī. The third conjugation drops -ere and adds -ī: regī, mittī, capī.
- Synopsis: one person, every tense, active and passive.
- From a place: ā/ab, ē/ex, dē + ablative.
- Separation: ablative, with a preposition if there is real movement.
- By a person (with a passive): ā/ab + ablative. By a thing: plain ablative.
- synopsis
- one person of a verb in every tense
- ā / ab
- from (near); by (a person)
- ē / ex
- out of
- dē
- down from; about
- prohibeō, prohibēre
- keep (away) from
- superō, superāre
- overcome, defeat
- personal agent
- the person by whom a passive action is done
Watch out: Using the plain ablative for a person: wrong: Oppidum Gallīs oppugnātur. A person who does the action takes ā / ab: ā Gallīs. A thing used takes no preposition: pīlīs oppugnātur, it is attacked with spears.
- Principal parts: present, infinitive, perfect, perfect passive participle.
- Perfect stem = perfect minus -ī.
- Perfect endings: -ī, -istī, -it, -imus, -istis, -ērunt.
- Pluperfect = stem + eram; future perfect = stem + erō (they: -erint).
- principal parts
- the four forms you learn: sum, esse, fuī; amō, amāre, amāvī, amātus
- perfect stem
- the perfect without -ī: fu-
- perfect
- completed: have been, was
- pluperfect
- had been
- future perfect
- will have been
Watch out: Using -erunt for the future perfect "they": wrong: fuerunt. The future perfect is fuerint; fuērunt (long ē) is the perfect.
- Perfect = perfect stem (third principal part minus -ī) + -ī, -istī, -it, -imus, -istis, -ērunt.
- 1st conjugation: usually -āvī.
- Perfect = did / have done; imperfect = was doing.
- In stories: perfect for events, imperfect for background.
- perfect active
- I did / I have done
- third principal part
- the perfect, first person: amāvī
- dūcō, dūcere, dūxī
- lead
- mittō, mittere, mīsī
- send
- veniō, venīre, vēnī
- come
Watch out: Building the perfect from the present stem: wrong: mittī for "I sent". The perfect stem often looks different, so always learn the third principal part: mīsī.
- Pluperfect = perfect stem + eram, erās, erat …: had done.
- Future perfect = perfect stem + erō, eris, erit … erint: will have done.
- Perfect infinitive = perfect stem + isse.
- -erā- had; -eri- will have.
- pluperfect
- had done: perfect stem + eram
- future perfect
- will have done: perfect stem + erō
- perfect infinitive
- to have done: perfect stem + isse
- synopsis
- one person of a verb in every tense
- epistula, -ae
- letter
Watch out: Mixing up -erat and -erit. Pluperfect has -erā- (had), future perfect has -eri- (will have): vīderat, he had seen; vīderit, he will have seen.
- Fourth principal part: perfect passive participle, -us, -a, -um.
- Perfect passive = participle + sum; pluperfect + eram; future perfect + erō.
- The participle agrees with the subject.
- Infinitives: amātus esse (perfect passive), amātūrus esse (future active).
- perfect passive participle
- having been …ed: amātus, -a, -um
- amātus sum
- I was (have been) loved
- amātus eram
- I had been loved
- amātus esse
- to have been loved
- amātūrus esse
- to be about to love
- cōnsilium, -ī
- plan
- epistula, -ae
- letter
Watch out: Reading amātus est as present: wrong: he is loved. Est is present, but the phrase is perfect: he was (has been) loved. Likewise amātus erat is "had been loved", not "was loved".
- Four principal parts: present, infinitive, perfect, participle.
- Ablative: ā/ab, cum, dē, ē/ex, prō, sine. Accusative: ad, apud, per.
- in + ablative = in, on; in + accusative = into, against.
- -ne (open question), nōnne (expects yes), num (expects no).
- principal parts
- present, infinitive, perfect, participle
- -ne
- question sign, no answer expected
- nōnne
- expects "yes"
- num
- expects "no"
- in + accusative
- into, against
- epistula, -ae
- letter
Watch out: Using num for a neutral question. Num expects the answer no. For a plain question, add -ne to the first word, usually the verb: Vēnitne? Has he come?
- possum = pot- + sum; pos- before s: possum, potes, potest, possumus, potestis, possunt.
- Perfect potuī; infinitive posse.
- Infinitive completes a verb: possum vidēre.
- Subject of an infinitive: accusative (iussit virōs fugere).
- Infinitive as a noun: neuter singular (vidēre est crēdere).
- possum, posse, potuī
- be able, can
- complementary infinitive
- completes a verb: possum vidēre
- subject accusative
- the subject of an infinitive is accusative
- iubeō, iubēre, iussī, iussus
- order
- grātus, -a, -um
- pleasing
Watch out: Putting the subject of the infinitive in the nominative: wrong: Lēgātus cōpiae venīre iussit. After iubeō, the person told to act is accusative: cōpiās venīre iussit.
- quī, quae, quod: who, which, that.
- Gender and number from the antecedent; case from its own clause.
- quis, quid: who? what? (pronoun).
- quī, quae, quod before a noun: which …? what …?
- relative pronoun
- who, which, that: quī, quae, quod
- antecedent
- the noun the relative refers to
- quis, quid
- who? what? (pronoun)
- quī, quae, quod (question)
- which …? what …? (adjective)
- interficiō, interficere, interfēcī, interfectus
- kill
- fēmina, -ae
- woman
Watch out: Copying the antecedent's case: wrong: virōs quōs captī sunt. Virōs is accusative in the main clause, but inside its own clause the relative is the subject, so it is nominative: quī captī sunt.
- Learn every third-declension noun with its genitive; drop -is for the base.
- Masc./fem.: -s or none, -is, -ī, -em, -e; -ēs, -um, -ibus, -ēs, -ibus.
- Neuter: nominative = accusative; plural -a.
- The nominative often hides the base: rēx (rēg-), mīles (mīlit-), flūmen (flūmin-).
- rēx, rēgis, m.
- king
- mīles, mīlitis, m.
- soldier
- pater, patris, m.
- father
- māter, mātris, f.
- mother
- legiō, legiōnis, f.
- legion
- flūmen, flūminis, n.
- river
- tempus, temporis, n.
- time
Watch out: Using the nominative as the base: wrong: mīlem, wrong: flūmenis. The nominative is often changed (rēg-s → rēx, mīlit-s → mīles). Always build from the genitive: mīlitem, flūminis.
- i-stems: -ēs/-is nouns with equal syllables; -ns, -rs; one-syllable -s/-x after a consonant; neuters in -e, -al, -ar.
- Masc./fem.: genitive plural -ium; accusative plural -īs or -ēs.
- Neuters: ablative -ī; plural -ia, -ium.
- hostis, hostis (-ium), m.
- enemy (in war)
- urbs, urbis (-ium), f.
- city
- cīvis, cīvis (-ium), m. and f.
- citizen
- nāvis, nāvis (-ium), f.
- ship
- mare, maris (-ium), n.
- sea
- animal, animālis (-ium), n.
- animal
- i-stem
- a third-declension noun with -ium in the genitive plural
Watch out: Treating every -is noun as an i-stem. Hostis, hostis is (same syllables), but mīles, mīlitis and lapis, lapidis are not: their genitives are longer, so they have mīlitum and lapidum.
- vīs: vīs, vim, vī; plural vīrēs, vīrium (strength).
- iter, itineris, n.
- Masc.: -or, -ōs, -er, -es (-itis). Fem.: -ō, -is, -x, -s. Neut.: -e, -al, -ar, -n, -ur, short -us.
- Males are masculine; learn the listed exceptions.
- vīs, vīs, f.
- force; plural vīrēs, strength
- iter, itineris, n.
- journey, march, route
- mōns, montis (-ium), m.
- mountain
- arbor, arboris, f.
- tree
- gender rule
- the nominative ending gives a likely gender; learn the exceptions
Watch out: Treating -us in the third declension like -us in the second. Tempus, opus, corpus are neuter: magnum tempus, not wrong: magnus tempus. Check the genitive: -oris or -eris means third declension.
- Three endings (-er), two (-is, -e), one (pār).
- Declined like i-stems; ablative singular always -ī.
- Neuter plural -ia; genitive plural -ium.
- They can go with nouns of any declension.
- omnis, omne
- every; plural all
- fortis, forte
- brave
- facilis, facile
- easy
- difficilis, difficile
- difficult
- brevis, breve
- short
- ācer, ācris, ācre
- keen, sharp
- pār (gen. paris)
- equal
Watch out: Expecting the adjective's ending to match the noun's: wrong: puella forta. Agreement is in gender, number and case, not spelling. Fortis is feminine here, so puella fortis.
- Genitive singular -ūs marks the fourth declension.
- Masc. -us, -ūs, -uī, -um, -ū; -ūs, -uum, -ibus, -ūs, -ibus.
- Neuter -ū: cornū, cornua.
- manus and domus are feminine.
- exercitus, -ūs, m.
- army
- equitātus, -ūs, m.
- cavalry
- impetus, -ūs, m.
- attack
- adventus, -ūs, m.
- arrival
- manus, -ūs, f.
- hand; band of men
- cornū, -ūs, n.
- horn; wing of an army
Watch out: Reading -us as second declension. In manus, exercitus and impetus the genitive singular is -ūs, the nominative and accusative plural are -ūs, and the dative plural is -ibus: exercitibus, not wrong: exercitīs.
- To: ad/in + acc.; from: ā/ab, dē, ē/ex + abl.; in: in + abl.
- Towns, small islands, domus and rūs: no preposition.
- At a singular 1st/2nd-declension town: locative (Rōmae, Corinthī); also domī, rūrī.
- Countries keep the preposition.
- locative
- the "at" case for towns, domus and rūs: Rōmae, domī, rūrī
- domus, -ūs, f.
- house, home; domum (home, homeward), domō (from home), domī (at home)
- rūs, rūris, n.
- the country (not the town)
- Athēnae, -ārum, f. pl.
- Athens
- Corinthus, -ī, f.
- Corinth
Watch out: Adding a preposition to a town or home: wrong: ad Rōmam, wrong: in domō. Just Rōmam, domī. But keep it for countries: in Galliā.
- Fifth declension: -ēs, -ēī/-eī, -ēī/-eī, -em, -ē; -ēs, -ērum, -ēbus, -ēs, -ēbus.
- Feminine, except diēs and merīdiēs (usually masculine).
- Time when or within which: ablative, no preposition.
- diēs, diēī, m.
- day
- rēs, reī, f.
- thing, matter
- hōra, -ae, f.
- hour
- annus, -ī, m.
- year
- aestās, aestātis, f.
- summer
- hiems, hiemis, f.
- winter
- lūx, lūcis, f.
- light; prīma lūx, daybreak
- prīmus, -a, -um
- first
Watch out: Adding in for time: wrong: in eō diē. The usual Latin is plain eō diē. (D'Ooge notes in is found occasionally, like English "on the next day" beside "next day".)
- ego/mē/mihi; tū/tē/tibi; nōs/nōbīs; vōs/vōbīs.
- Nominative ego, tū only for emphasis.
- Reflexive 3rd person: suī, sibi, sē (no nominative; singular = plural).
- cum is attached: mēcum, tēcum, sēcum, nōbīscum, vōbīscum.
- ego, meī
- I
- tū, tuī
- you (one person)
- nōs, nostrum
- we
- vōs, vestrum
- you (more than one)
- suī, sibi, sē
- himself, herself, itself, themselves
- mēcum
- with me
Watch out: Using eum where the subject acts on itself: wrong: Puer eum videt for "the boy sees himself". Eum means some other person. Use the reflexive sē.
- ipse, ipsa, ipsum: -self, very; declined like ūnus (gen. ipsīus).
- ipse emphasises; sē reflects back to the subject.
- īdem, eadem, idem = is + -dem; m before d becomes n (eundem).
- ipse, ipsa, ipsum
- -self (emphasis); the very
- īdem, eadem, idem
- the same
- intensive
- adds emphasis: ipse
- reflexive
- refers back to the subject: sē
Watch out: Using sē for emphasis: wrong: Rēx sē vēnit. Sē is never the subject. For "the king himself came", use ipse: Rēx ipse vēnit.
- hic (this, near me), iste (that, near you), ille (that, far away).
- hic: hic haec hoc, huius, huic, hunc hanc hoc, hōc hāc hōc.
- ille, iste like ipse; neuter illud, istud.
- haec = feminine singular or neuter plural.
- hic, haec, hoc
- this; he, she, it
- iste, ista, istud
- that (near you)
- ille, illa, illud
- that (over there); he, she, it
- huius
- of this (two syllables: HOO-yoos)
Watch out: Mixing up haec. It is the feminine singular (haec puella) and the neuter plural (haec oppida). Check the noun.
- aliquis: someone. quīdam: a certain. quisque: each. quisquam: anyone (negative).
- quis = anyone after sī, nisi, nē, num.
- Built on quis / quī; quīdam has quendam, quōrundam.
- aliquis, aliquid
- someone, something
- quīdam, quaedam, quiddam / quoddam
- a certain (one)
- quisque, quidque
- each one
- quisquam, quicquam
- anyone (at all), in negative sentences
- sī quis
- if anyone
Watch out: Using quisquam in a positive sentence: wrong: Quisquam vēnit for "someone came". Use aliquis. Quisquam belongs with a negative: Nec quisquam vēnit, and no one came (usually just nēmō vēnit).
- Comparative: base + -ior (m./f.), -ius (n.); superlative: base + -issimus.
- -er adjectives: -rimus (pulcherrimus); six -lis adjectives: -limus (facillimus).
- Than: quam + same case, or the ablative without quam.
- Comparative = rather/too; superlative = very.
- comparative
- -ior, -ius: braver, rather brave, too brave
- superlative
- -issimus: bravest, very brave
- quam
- than
- sōl, sōlis, m.
- sun
- clārus, -a, -um
- bright; famous
Watch out: Using the ablative and quam together: wrong: fortior quam illō. Either quam ille (same case as the subject) or illō with no quam.
- bonus–melior–optimus; malus–peior–pessimus; magnus–maior–maximus; parvus–minor–minimus; multus–plūs–plūrimus.
- plūs: singular noun (+ genitive); plural adjective plūrēs, plūra.
- By how much: ablative (multō, paulō).
- melior, optimus
- better, best
- peior, pessimus
- worse, worst
- maior, maximus
- greater, greatest
- minor, minimus
- smaller, smallest
- plūs, plūris
- more
- multō
- by much, much
- paulō
- by a little, a little
Watch out: Forming these regularly: wrong: magnior, wrong: bonior. They must be learned: maior, melior. Also, plūs in the singular is a noun: wrong: plūs mīlitēs for "more soldiers" is wrong; use the plural adjective plūrēs mīlitēs.
- 1st/2nd-declension adjectives: -ē; 3rd-declension: -iter (one ending: -ter).
- Comparative -ius; superlative -issimē.
- bene–melius–optimē; diū–diūtius; magnopere–magis–maximē; parum–minus–minimē; saepe–saepius–saepissimē.
- adverb
- modifies a verb, adjective or another adverb
- fortiter
- bravely
- bene, melius, optimē
- well, better, best
- saepe, saepius, saepissimē
- often, more often, very often
- diū
- for a long time
- minimē
- least; not at all
Watch out: Using the adjective where you need the adverb: wrong: Mīlitēs fortēs labōrant means "the brave soldiers work". For how they work, use the adverb: fortiter labōrant.
- 1–20: ūnus … vīgintī; 18 duodēvīgintī, 19 ūndēvīgintī; 100 centum, 1,000 mīlle.
- Declined: ūnus, duo, trēs, hundreds from 200, mīlia.
- Part of a whole: genitive; with numbers, ex/dē + ablative; mīlia + genitive.
- How long / how far: accusative. When / within: ablative.
- cardinal
- how many: ūnus, duo, trēs
- ordinal
- which in order: prīmus, secundus, tertius
- partitive genitive
- genitive of the whole: fortissimī hōrum
- accusative of extent
- how long or how far: trēs diēs, decem pedēs
- mīlle; mīlia, mīlium
- a thousand; thousands
- passus, -ūs, m.
- pace (five Roman feet); mīlle passuum, a Roman mile
Watch out: Mixing up for how long and within / when. Accusative for duration (trēs diēs, for three days); ablative for the time within which or when (tribus diēbus, within three days; tertiō diē, on the third day).
- Deponent: passive endings, active meaning.
- Three principal parts: hortor, hortārī, hortātus sum.
- All passive tenses apply: hortor, hortābar, hortābor, hortātus sum …
- Translate actively: secūtus est = he followed.
- deponent verb
- passive in form, active in meaning
- hortor, hortārī, hortātus sum
- encourage
- vereor, verērī, veritus sum
- fear
- sequor, sequī, secūtus sum
- follow
- patior, patī, passus sum
- suffer, allow
- cōnor, cōnārī, cōnātus sum
- try
- proficīscor, proficīscī, profectus sum
- set out
Watch out: Translating deponents as passive: wrong: The soldiers are followed for Mīlitēs sequuntur. A deponent is active in meaning: the soldiers follow. Check the dictionary entry: if the first principal part ends in -or and the third is -us sum, it's deponent.