- c and g are always hard: k and g.
- v is w; i before a vowel is y.
- ae is ai, au is ou.
- Two syllables: stress the first. Longer: stress the second-to-last if long (long vowel, or vowel before two consonants), else the one before.
- Church Latin is a different, also valid, tradition.
- classical pronunciation
- how Latin was spoken in the 1st century BC
- macron
- the line over a long vowel: ā, ē, ī, ō, ū
- diphthong
- two vowels said in one syllable, like ae or au
- penult
- the second-to-last syllable of a word
Watch out: Saying v and c the English way: "VEE-nye, VYE-dye, VYE-sye" or "SISS-er-oh". In classical Latin, v is always w and c is always k.
- Latin shows each noun's job with its ending, not its position.
- First-declension subject: -a. Object: -am.
- Word order can change for emphasis without changing who does what.
- Read endings first, then put the English in order.
- subject
- who does the action; ending -a here
- object
- who receives the action; ending -am here
- ending
- the last letters of a word, which show its job
- inflection
- changing a word's ending to show its job
Watch out: Translating in the order the words appear: reading Nautam puella vocat as "the sailor calls the girl". Find the subject by its ending first, then the verb, then the object.
The five cases Beginning Latin · How sentences work
- Five main cases: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, ablative.
- Each case is a job: subject, owner, to/for, object, by/with/from.
- puella, puellae, puellae, puellam, puellā in the singular.
- Genitive and dative share puellae: let the sentence decide.
- case
- the form a noun takes for its job in the sentence
- nominative
- subject case
- genitive
- owner case: of …, …'s
- dative
- indirect object: to / for …
- accusative
- direct object case
- ablative
- by, with, from, in …
Watch out: Mixing up genitive and dative, because both are puellae in the singular. Use the sentence to decide: rosa puellae (the girl's rose) is genitive; puellae dat (gives to the girl) is dative.
- First declension: nouns with nominative -a.
- Singular: -a, -ae, -ae, -am, -ā. Plural: -ae, -ārum, -īs, -ās, -īs.
- Find the stem by dropping -a, then add the endings.
- Most are feminine; nauta, agricola and poēta are masculine.
- declension
- a group of nouns that share one set of endings
- stem
- the part that stays the same: puell-
- singular / plural
- one / more than one
- feminine / masculine
- the grammatical gender of a noun
Watch out: Assuming every -a noun is feminine. Most are, but a few words for men's jobs are masculine: nauta (sailor), agricola (farmer), poēta (poet). They still use the first-declension endings.
- An adjective agrees with its noun in gender, number and case.
- Feminine: bona, pulchra. Masculine: bonus, pulcher.
- Masculine -a nouns (nauta, agricola) take masculine adjectives.
- Adjectives often follow their noun, but can come first for emphasis.
- agree
- match the noun in gender, number and case
- bona
- good (feminine)
- bonus
- good (masculine)
- pulchra
- beautiful (feminine)
Watch out: Making the adjective's ending look like the noun's: agricola bona. Agricola ends in -a but is masculine, so the adjective takes its masculine form: agricola bonus. Agreement is about gender, number and case, not about matching letters.
- Second declension: genitive singular -ī.
- -us nouns are mostly masculine; -um nouns are neuter.
- dominus: -us, -ī, -ō, -um, -ō; plural -ī, -ōrum, -īs, -ōs, -īs.
- Neuter: nominative and accusative plural in -a (pīla).
- Vocative of -us nouns ends in -e (domine).
- second declension
- nouns with genitive singular in -ī
- neuter
- neither masculine nor feminine; nouns in -um
- vocative
- the case for calling someone: Domine!
- dominus, -ī, m.
- master
- pīlum, -ī, n.
- spear
Watch out: Giving a neuter plural the ending -ī: wrong: pīlī for "spears" as a subject or object. Neuter nouns end in -a in the nominative and accusative plural: pīla, oppida, bella.
- After est / sunt, a noun that says what the subject is takes the subject's case.
- A noun in apposition copies the case of the noun it explains.
- A predicate noun is nominative when the subject is; an appositive can be in any case.
- predicate noun
- a noun after est / sunt that says what the subject is
- apposition
- a noun placed beside another to explain it, in the same case
- lēgātus, -ī, m.
- lieutenant, envoy
- agricola, -ae, m.
- farmer
Watch out: Leaving the appositive in the nominative: wrong: Mārcum lēgātus laudant. The explaining noun copies the case of the noun it explains: Mārcum lēgātum.
- bonus, bona, bonum: masculine like dominus, feminine like puella, neuter like pīlum.
- Choose the adjective by the noun's gender, number and case.
- nauta bonus, agricola bonus: masculine nouns of the first declension take masculine adjectives.
- bonus, -a, -um
- good
- magnus, -a, -um
- big, great
- parvus, -a, -um
- small
- malus, -a, -um
- bad, wicked
Watch out: Copying the noun's ending instead of choosing by gender: wrong: agricolārum bonārum for "of the good farmers". Agricola is masculine: agricolārum bonōrum.
- -ius / -ium nouns: genitive singular in -ī (fīlī, praesidī).
- fīlius and names in -ius: vocative in -ī (fīlī, Vergilī).
- puer keeps its e (puerī); ager drops it (agrī); vir is regular (virī).
- Learn the genitive with every noun.
- fīlius, fīlī, m.
- son
- puer, puerī, m.
- boy
- ager, agrī, m.
- field
- vir, virī, m.
- man
- līberī, -ōrum, m. pl.
- children (literally "the free-born")
Watch out: Guessing whether the e stays. Puer keeps it (puerī), but ager drops it, so wrong: agerī is wrong: agrī. Always learn the genitive with the noun.
My, your, his, our Beginning Latin · Pronouns and adjectives
- meus, tuus, suus, noster, vester are declined like adjectives.
- They agree with the thing possessed in gender, number and case.
- tuus for one owner, vester for more than one.
- suus refers back to the subject: his / her / their own.
- The vocative of meus is mī: mī fīlī.
- meus, -a, -um
- my
- tuus, -a, -um
- your (one owner)
- suus, -a, -um
- his / her / its / their own (the subject's)
- noster, -tra, -trum
- our
- vester, -tra, -trum
- your (more than one owner)
Watch out: Choosing tuus or vester by politeness, as in French tu and vous. In Latin it depends only on the number of owners: one owner tuus, more than one vester.
- Cause and means: plain ablative, normally no cum.
- Accompaniment: cum + ablative.
- Manner: cum + ablative; cum may drop when there's an adjective.
- Ask: because of what, with what, with whom, how?
- ablative of cause
- because of what; no cum
- ablative of means
- with what, by means of what; no cum
- ablative of accompaniment
- with whom; cum
- ablative of manner
- how; cum, which may be left out with an adjective
Watch out: Putting cum before a tool or a cause: wrong: cum pīlīs pugnant for "they fight with spears". The rule to learn now: cum for company and manner, the plain ablative for means and cause. (Later you will meet cum with weapons meaning "armed with".)
- UNUS NAUTA: ūnus, nūllus, ūllus, sōlus, neuter, alius, uter, tōtus, alter.
- Genitive singular -īus, dative singular -ī, in all genders.
- Otherwise like bonus; plural regular; alius has neuter aliud.
- alter … alter = the one … the other; aliī … aliī = some … others.
- ūnus, -a, -um
- one
- tōtus, -a, -um
- whole, entire
- alius, -a, -ud
- another (of several)
- alter, -era, -erum
- the other (of two)
- uter, utra, utrum
- which? (of two)
Watch out: Using the regular endings in the genitive and dative singular: wrong: nūllae puellae for "of no girl". The nine use nūllīus puellae, and the dative nūllī puellae.
- is, ea, id = this / that, and he / she / it.
- Genitive eius, dative eī, accusative eum, eam, id.
- suus = the subject's own; eius / eōrum / eārum = someone else's.
- is, ea, id
- this, that; he, she, it
- eius
- his, her, its (not the subject's)
- eōrum / eārum
- their (not the subject's)
- suus, -a, -um
- his / her / their own (the subject's)
Watch out: Using eius for the subject's own things: wrong: Mārcus eius equum cūrat for "Marcus looks after his own horse". That eius would mean someone else's horse. Use suum: Mārcus suum equum cūrat.
- Endings show the person: -ō/-m, -s, -t, -mus, -tis, -nt.
- Present: sum, es, est, sumus, estis, sunt.
- Imperfect: eram, erās, erat, erāmus, erātis, erant.
- Future: erō, eris, erit, erimus, eritis, erunt.
- sum, esse
- to be
- personal ending
- the ending that shows the person: -ō/-m, -s, -t, -mus, -tis, -nt
- hodiē
- today
- mox
- soon
- nūper
- recently
Watch out: Mixing up eris (you will be) and erās (you were). The future has -i- (eris, erit, erimus, eritis); the imperfect has -a- (erās, erat, erāmus, erātis).
- Infinitive -āre: 1st conjugation; -ēre: 2nd; -ere: 3rd; -īre: 4th.
- Present = stem + personal ending: amō, amās, amat, amāmus, amātis, amant.
- moneō keeps its e: moneō, monēs, monet …
- One Latin present = "I love", "I am loving" or "I do love".
- conjugation
- a group of verbs that share one pattern
- infinitive
- the "to …" form: amāre, to love
- stem
- the infinitive without -re: amā-, monē-
- habeō, habēre
- have
- videō, vidēre
- see
Watch out: Missing the -e- in the second conjugation's "I" form: wrong: monō. The first conjugation contracts (amā-ō → amō), but the second keeps both vowels: moneō, videō, habeō.
- Imperfect = stem + -bā- + ending.
- First person ends in -m: amābam.
- Meaning: was …ing, used to …, kept …ing.
- Same pattern for the 1st and 2nd conjugations.
- tense sign
- letters added to show the tense: -bā- for the imperfect
- imperfect
- was doing / used to do
- saepe
- often
- arō, arāre
- plough
Watch out: Translating the imperfect as a single finished action ("he ploughed once"). It shows something in progress or repeated: was ploughing, used to plough. The completed past comes later, with the perfect tense.
The future: will do Intermediate Latin · Verbs: the present system
- Future = stem + -bi- + ending: amābō, amābis, amābit, amābimus, amābitis, amābunt.
- Endings match erō, eris, erit.
- -bā- = past (imperfect); -bi-/-bu- = future.
- future
- will do, shall do
- -bi-
- the future tense sign in the 1st and 2nd conjugations
- crās
- tomorrow
- moneō, monēre
- advise, warn
Watch out: Confusing -bant (imperfect: were) and -bunt (future: will). One vowel changes the time: vocābant they were calling, vocābunt they will call.
- Adjectives of nearness, friendship, pleasing and fitness, and their opposites, take the dative.
- The dative answers "to whom?" or "for what?".
- A singular first-declension -ae that the quality is directed to is dative.
- amīcus
- friendly (to); as a noun, friend
- inimīcus
- hostile (to); as a noun, enemy
- grātus
- pleasing (to)
- idōneus
- suitable (for)
- fīnitimus
- neighbouring (to)
Watch out: Reading the dative as "of": rēgīnae grātus is "pleasing to the queen", not "the queen's pleasing". With these adjectives, a singular first-declension noun in -ae that the quality is directed to is the dative (though -ae can also be a nominative plural elsewhere).
- regō: regō, regis, regit, regimus, regitis, regunt.
- audiō: audiō, audīs, audit, audīmus, audītis, audiunt.
- 3rd: short e → i, and u before -nt. 4th: long ī, with -iunt.
- -ēre (long) = 2nd; -ere (short) = 3rd.
- regō, regere
- rule
- dūcō, dūcere
- lead
- mittō, mittere
- send
- audiō, audīre
- hear
- veniō, venīre
- come
Watch out: Treating regere like monēre because both infinitives end in -ere. Check the vowel: monēre has a long ē (second conjugation: monēmus); regere has a short e (third: regimus). A dictionary shows it with a macron or by giving the full forms.
- 3rd and 4th conjugation imperfect: regēbam, audiēbam (…ēbā…).
- crēdō, faveō, noceō, pāreō, persuādeō, resistō and studeō take the dative.
- Think "give belief / obedience / resistance to".
- crēdō, crēdere (+ dat.)
- believe, trust
- noceō, nocēre (+ dat.)
- harm
- pāreō, pārēre (+ dat.)
- obey
- resistō, resistere (+ dat.)
- resist
- studeō, studēre (+ dat.)
- be eager for, study
Watch out: Using the accusative after these verbs: wrong: rēgīnam pārent. Think "give obedience to the queen": rēgīnae pārent.
- 3rd and 4th conjugation future: -am, -ēs, -et, -ēmus, -ētis, -ent.
- 4th keeps its i: audiam, audiēs …
- Third-conjugation future looks like second-conjugation present: check the conjugation.
- regam, regēs, reget
- I shall / you will / he will rule
- audiam, audiēs, audiet
- I shall / you will / he will hear
- nūntius, -ī, m.
- messenger, message
Watch out: Reading regēs or mittet as present. In the second conjugation monēs is present, but in the third regēs is future. Check the infinitive: regere (short e) is third conjugation, so regēs = you will rule.
- -iō verbs (capiō, faciō, fugiō, iaciō, rapiō) are third conjugation.
- They take an i where audiō has two vowels together: capiunt, capiēbam, capiam.
- Imperative: stem for one person (amā), + -te for more (amāte).
- Short forms: dīc, dūc, fac.
- capiō, capere
- take, seize
- faciō, facere
- make, do
- fugiō, fugere
- flee
- imperative
- the mood for orders: amā! amāte!
Watch out: Calling capiō fourth conjugation because of the -iō. Check the infinitive: capere (short e) is third, so the present is capis, capit, not wrong: capīs, capīt.
- Passive = the subject receives the action.
- Endings: -r, -ris, -tur, -mur, -minī, -ntur (present "I": -or).
- Same tense signs: -bā- (imperfect), -bi- (future).
- amor, amābar, amābor: I am / was being / shall be loved.
- active voice
- the subject does the action
- passive voice
- the subject receives the action
- -tur, -ntur
- passive "he / she / it", "they"
- vāstō, vāstāre
- lay waste
- oppugnō, oppugnāre
- attack
Watch out: Missing the passive because the stem looks familiar. Check the ending: vocant (they call) but vocantur (they are called); vocābit (he will call) but vocābitur (he will be called).
- Passive endings go on the tenses you know: regor, regēbar, regar.
- regō "you": present regeris, future regēris.
- capiō: capior, capiuntur like audiō; caperis, capitur like regō.
- Passive infinitive: amārī, monērī, regī, capī, audīrī.
- regī
- to be ruled
- audīrī
- to be heard
- capī
- to be taken
- present passive infinitive
- "to be …ed"
Watch out: Making the passive infinitive of the third conjugation like the others: wrong: regerī. The third conjugation drops -ere and adds -ī: regī, mittī, capī.
- Synopsis: one person, every tense, active and passive.
- From a place: ā/ab, ē/ex, dē + ablative.
- Separation: ablative, with a preposition if there is real movement.
- By a person (with a passive): ā/ab + ablative. By a thing: plain ablative.
- synopsis
- one person of a verb in every tense
- ā / ab
- from (near); by (a person)
- ē / ex
- out of
- dē
- down from; about
- prohibeō, prohibēre
- keep (away) from
- superō, superāre
- overcome, defeat
- personal agent
- the person by whom a passive action is done
Watch out: Using the plain ablative for a person: wrong: Oppidum Gallīs oppugnātur. A person who does the action takes ā / ab: ā Gallīs. A thing used takes no preposition: pīlīs oppugnātur, it is attacked with spears.
- Principal parts: present, infinitive, perfect, perfect passive participle.
- Perfect stem = perfect minus -ī.
- Perfect endings: -ī, -istī, -it, -imus, -istis, -ērunt.
- Pluperfect = stem + eram; future perfect = stem + erō (they: -erint).
- principal parts
- the four forms you learn: sum, esse, fuī; amō, amāre, amāvī, amātus
- perfect stem
- the perfect without -ī: fu-
- perfect
- completed: have been, was
- pluperfect
- had been
- future perfect
- will have been
Watch out: Using -erunt for the future perfect "they": wrong: fuerunt. The future perfect is fuerint; fuērunt (long ē) is the perfect.
- Perfect = perfect stem (third principal part minus -ī) + -ī, -istī, -it, -imus, -istis, -ērunt.
- 1st conjugation: usually -āvī.
- Perfect = did / have done; imperfect = was doing.
- In stories: perfect for events, imperfect for background.
- perfect active
- I did / I have done
- third principal part
- the perfect, first person: amāvī
- dūcō, dūcere, dūxī
- lead
- mittō, mittere, mīsī
- send
- veniō, venīre, vēnī
- come
Watch out: Building the perfect from the present stem: wrong: mittī for "I sent". The perfect stem often looks different, so always learn the third principal part: mīsī.
- Pluperfect = perfect stem + eram, erās, erat …: had done.
- Future perfect = perfect stem + erō, eris, erit … erint: will have done.
- Perfect infinitive = perfect stem + isse.
- -erā- had; -eri- will have.
- pluperfect
- had done: perfect stem + eram
- future perfect
- will have done: perfect stem + erō
- perfect infinitive
- to have done: perfect stem + isse
- synopsis
- one person of a verb in every tense
- epistula, -ae
- letter
Watch out: Mixing up -erat and -erit. Pluperfect has -erā- (had), future perfect has -eri- (will have): vīderat, he had seen; vīderit, he will have seen.
- Fourth principal part: perfect passive participle, -us, -a, -um.
- Perfect passive = participle + sum; pluperfect + eram; future perfect + erō.
- The participle agrees with the subject.
- Infinitives: amātus esse (perfect passive), amātūrus esse (future active).
- perfect passive participle
- having been …ed: amātus, -a, -um
- amātus sum
- I was (have been) loved
- amātus eram
- I had been loved
- amātus esse
- to have been loved
- amātūrus esse
- to be about to love
- cōnsilium, -ī
- plan
- epistula, -ae
- letter
Watch out: Reading amātus est as present: wrong: he is loved. Est is present, but the phrase is perfect: he was (has been) loved. Likewise amātus erat is "had been loved", not "was loved".
- Four principal parts: present, infinitive, perfect, participle.
- Ablative: ā/ab, cum, dē, ē/ex, prō, sine. Accusative: ad, apud, per.
- in + ablative = in, on; in + accusative = into, against.
- -ne (open question), nōnne (expects yes), num (expects no).
- principal parts
- present, infinitive, perfect, participle
- -ne
- question sign, no answer expected
- nōnne
- expects "yes"
- num
- expects "no"
- in + accusative
- into, against
- epistula, -ae
- letter
Watch out: Using num for a neutral question. Num expects the answer no. For a plain question, add -ne to the first word, usually the verb: Vēnitne? Has he come?
- possum = pot- + sum; pos- before s: possum, potes, potest, possumus, potestis, possunt.
- Perfect potuī; infinitive posse.
- Infinitive completes a verb: possum vidēre.
- Subject of an infinitive: accusative (iussit virōs fugere).
- Infinitive as a noun: neuter singular (vidēre est crēdere).
- possum, posse, potuī
- be able, can
- complementary infinitive
- completes a verb: possum vidēre
- subject accusative
- the subject of an infinitive is accusative
- iubeō, iubēre, iussī, iussus
- order
- grātus, -a, -um
- pleasing
Watch out: Putting the subject of the infinitive in the nominative: wrong: Lēgātus cōpiae venīre iussit. After iubeō, the person told to act is accusative: cōpiās venīre iussit.
- quī, quae, quod: who, which, that.
- Gender and number from the antecedent; case from its own clause.
- quis, quid: who? what? (pronoun).
- quī, quae, quod before a noun: which …? what …?
- relative pronoun
- who, which, that: quī, quae, quod
- antecedent
- the noun the relative refers to
- quis, quid
- who? what? (pronoun)
- quī, quae, quod (question)
- which …? what …? (adjective)
- interficiō, interficere, interfēcī, interfectus
- kill
- fēmina, -ae
- woman
Watch out: Copying the antecedent's case: wrong: virōs quōs captī sunt. Virōs is accusative in the main clause, but inside its own clause the relative is the subject, so it is nominative: quī captī sunt.
- Learn every third-declension noun with its genitive; drop -is for the base.
- Masc./fem.: -s or none, -is, -ī, -em, -e; -ēs, -um, -ibus, -ēs, -ibus.
- Neuter: nominative = accusative; plural -a.
- The nominative often hides the base: rēx (rēg-), mīles (mīlit-), flūmen (flūmin-).
- rēx, rēgis, m.
- king
- mīles, mīlitis, m.
- soldier
- pater, patris, m.
- father
- māter, mātris, f.
- mother
- legiō, legiōnis, f.
- legion
- flūmen, flūminis, n.
- river
- tempus, temporis, n.
- time
Watch out: Using the nominative as the base: wrong: mīlem, wrong: flūmenis. The nominative is often changed (rēg-s → rēx, mīlit-s → mīles). Always build from the genitive: mīlitem, flūminis.
- i-stems: -ēs/-is nouns with equal syllables; -ns, -rs; one-syllable -s/-x after a consonant; neuters in -e, -al, -ar.
- Masc./fem.: genitive plural -ium; accusative plural -īs or -ēs.
- Neuters: ablative -ī; plural -ia, -ium.
- hostis, hostis (-ium), m.
- enemy (in war)
- urbs, urbis (-ium), f.
- city
- cīvis, cīvis (-ium), m. and f.
- citizen
- nāvis, nāvis (-ium), f.
- ship
- mare, maris (-ium), n.
- sea
- animal, animālis (-ium), n.
- animal
- i-stem
- a third-declension noun with -ium in the genitive plural
Watch out: Treating every -is noun as an i-stem. Hostis, hostis is (same syllables), but mīles, mīlitis and lapis, lapidis are not: their genitives are longer, so they have mīlitum and lapidum.
- vīs: vīs, vim, vī; plural vīrēs, vīrium (strength).
- iter, itineris, n.
- Masc.: -or, -ōs, -er, -es (-itis). Fem.: -ō, -is, -x, -s. Neut.: -e, -al, -ar, -n, -ur, short -us.
- Males are masculine; learn the listed exceptions.
- vīs, vīs, f.
- force; plural vīrēs, strength
- iter, itineris, n.
- journey, march, route
- mōns, montis (-ium), m.
- mountain
- arbor, arboris, f.
- tree
- gender rule
- the nominative ending gives a likely gender; learn the exceptions
Watch out: Treating -us in the third declension like -us in the second. Tempus, opus, corpus are neuter: magnum tempus, not wrong: magnus tempus. Check the genitive: -oris or -eris means third declension.
- Three endings (-er), two (-is, -e), one (pār).
- Declined like i-stems; ablative singular always -ī.
- Neuter plural -ia; genitive plural -ium.
- They can go with nouns of any declension.
- omnis, omne
- every; plural all
- fortis, forte
- brave
- facilis, facile
- easy
- difficilis, difficile
- difficult
- brevis, breve
- short
- ācer, ācris, ācre
- keen, sharp
- pār (gen. paris)
- equal
Watch out: Expecting the adjective's ending to match the noun's: wrong: puella forta. Agreement is in gender, number and case, not spelling. Fortis is feminine here, so puella fortis.
- Genitive singular -ūs marks the fourth declension.
- Masc. -us, -ūs, -uī, -um, -ū; -ūs, -uum, -ibus, -ūs, -ibus.
- Neuter -ū: cornū, cornua.
- manus and domus are feminine.
- exercitus, -ūs, m.
- army
- equitātus, -ūs, m.
- cavalry
- impetus, -ūs, m.
- attack
- adventus, -ūs, m.
- arrival
- manus, -ūs, f.
- hand; band of men
- cornū, -ūs, n.
- horn; wing of an army
Watch out: Reading -us as second declension. In manus, exercitus and impetus the genitive singular is -ūs, the nominative and accusative plural are -ūs, and the dative plural is -ibus: exercitibus, not wrong: exercitīs.
- To: ad/in + acc.; from: ā/ab, dē, ē/ex + abl.; in: in + abl.
- Towns, small islands, domus and rūs: no preposition.
- At a singular 1st/2nd-declension town: locative (Rōmae, Corinthī); also domī, rūrī.
- Countries keep the preposition.
- locative
- the "at" case for towns, domus and rūs: Rōmae, domī, rūrī
- domus, -ūs, f.
- house, home; domum (home, homeward), domō (from home), domī (at home)
- rūs, rūris, n.
- the country (not the town)
- Athēnae, -ārum, f. pl.
- Athens
- Corinthus, -ī, f.
- Corinth
Watch out: Adding a preposition to a town or home: wrong: ad Rōmam, wrong: in domō. Just Rōmam, domī. But keep it for countries: in Galliā.
- Fifth declension: -ēs, -ēī/-eī, -ēī/-eī, -em, -ē; -ēs, -ērum, -ēbus, -ēs, -ēbus.
- Feminine, except diēs and merīdiēs (usually masculine).
- Time when or within which: ablative, no preposition.
- diēs, diēī, m.
- day
- rēs, reī, f.
- thing, matter
- hōra, -ae, f.
- hour
- annus, -ī, m.
- year
- aestās, aestātis, f.
- summer
- hiems, hiemis, f.
- winter
- lūx, lūcis, f.
- light; prīma lūx, daybreak
- prīmus, -a, -um
- first
Watch out: Adding in for time: wrong: in eō diē. The usual Latin is plain eō diē. (D'Ooge notes in is found occasionally, like English "on the next day" beside "next day".)
- ego/mē/mihi; tū/tē/tibi; nōs/nōbīs; vōs/vōbīs.
- Nominative ego, tū only for emphasis.
- Reflexive 3rd person: suī, sibi, sē (no nominative; singular = plural).
- cum is attached: mēcum, tēcum, sēcum, nōbīscum, vōbīscum.
- ego, meī
- I
- tū, tuī
- you (one person)
- nōs, nostrum
- we
- vōs, vestrum
- you (more than one)
- suī, sibi, sē
- himself, herself, itself, themselves
- mēcum
- with me
Watch out: Using eum where the subject acts on itself: wrong: Puer eum videt for "the boy sees himself". Eum means some other person. Use the reflexive sē.
- ipse, ipsa, ipsum: -self, very; declined like ūnus (gen. ipsīus).
- ipse emphasises; sē reflects back to the subject.
- īdem, eadem, idem = is + -dem; m before d becomes n (eundem).
- ipse, ipsa, ipsum
- -self (emphasis); the very
- īdem, eadem, idem
- the same
- intensive
- adds emphasis: ipse
- reflexive
- refers back to the subject: sē
Watch out: Using sē for emphasis: wrong: Rēx sē vēnit. Sē is never the subject. For "the king himself came", use ipse: Rēx ipse vēnit.
- hic (this, near me), iste (that, near you), ille (that, far away).
- hic: hic haec hoc, huius, huic, hunc hanc hoc, hōc hāc hōc.
- ille, iste like ipse; neuter illud, istud.
- haec = feminine singular or neuter plural.
- hic, haec, hoc
- this; he, she, it
- iste, ista, istud
- that (near you)
- ille, illa, illud
- that (over there); he, she, it
- huius
- of this (two syllables: HOO-yoos)
Watch out: Mixing up haec. It is the feminine singular (haec puella) and the neuter plural (haec oppida). Check the noun.
- aliquis: someone. quīdam: a certain. quisque: each. quisquam: anyone (negative).
- quis = anyone after sī, nisi, nē, num.
- Built on quis / quī; quīdam has quendam, quōrundam.
- aliquis, aliquid
- someone, something
- quīdam, quaedam, quiddam / quoddam
- a certain (one)
- quisque, quidque
- each one
- quisquam, quicquam
- anyone (at all), in negative sentences
- sī quis
- if anyone
Watch out: Using quisquam in a positive sentence: wrong: Quisquam vēnit for "someone came". Use aliquis. Quisquam belongs with a negative: Nec quisquam vēnit, and no one came (usually just nēmō vēnit).
- Comparative: base + -ior (m./f.), -ius (n.); superlative: base + -issimus.
- -er adjectives: -rimus (pulcherrimus); six -lis adjectives: -limus (facillimus).
- Than: quam + same case, or the ablative without quam.
- Comparative = rather/too; superlative = very.
- comparative
- -ior, -ius: braver, rather brave, too brave
- superlative
- -issimus: bravest, very brave
- quam
- than
- sōl, sōlis, m.
- sun
- clārus, -a, -um
- bright; famous
Watch out: Using the ablative and quam together: wrong: fortior quam illō. Either quam ille (same case as the subject) or illō with no quam.
- bonus–melior–optimus; malus–peior–pessimus; magnus–maior–maximus; parvus–minor–minimus; multus–plūs–plūrimus.
- plūs: singular noun (+ genitive); plural adjective plūrēs, plūra.
- By how much: ablative (multō, paulō).
- melior, optimus
- better, best
- peior, pessimus
- worse, worst
- maior, maximus
- greater, greatest
- minor, minimus
- smaller, smallest
- plūs, plūris
- more
- multō
- by much, much
- paulō
- by a little, a little
Watch out: Forming these regularly: wrong: magnior, wrong: bonior. They must be learned: maior, melior. Also, plūs in the singular is a noun: wrong: plūs mīlitēs for "more soldiers" is wrong; use the plural adjective plūrēs mīlitēs.
- 1st/2nd-declension adjectives: -ē; 3rd-declension: -iter (one ending: -ter).
- Comparative -ius; superlative -issimē.
- bene–melius–optimē; diū–diūtius; magnopere–magis–maximē; parum–minus–minimē; saepe–saepius–saepissimē.
- adverb
- modifies a verb, adjective or another adverb
- fortiter
- bravely
- bene, melius, optimē
- well, better, best
- saepe, saepius, saepissimē
- often, more often, very often
- diū
- for a long time
- minimē
- least; not at all
Watch out: Using the adjective where you need the adverb: wrong: Mīlitēs fortēs labōrant means "the brave soldiers work". For how they work, use the adverb: fortiter labōrant.
- 1–20: ūnus … vīgintī; 18 duodēvīgintī, 19 ūndēvīgintī; 100 centum, 1,000 mīlle.
- Declined: ūnus, duo, trēs, hundreds from 200, mīlia.
- Part of a whole: genitive; with numbers, ex/dē + ablative; mīlia + genitive.
- How long / how far: accusative. When / within: ablative.
- cardinal
- how many: ūnus, duo, trēs
- ordinal
- which in order: prīmus, secundus, tertius
- partitive genitive
- genitive of the whole: fortissimī hōrum
- accusative of extent
- how long or how far: trēs diēs, decem pedēs
- mīlle; mīlia, mīlium
- a thousand; thousands
- passus, -ūs, m.
- pace (five Roman feet); mīlle passuum, a Roman mile
Watch out: Mixing up for how long and within / when. Accusative for duration (trēs diēs, for three days); ablative for the time within which or when (tribus diēbus, within three days; tertiō diē, on the third day).
- Deponent: passive endings, active meaning.
- Three principal parts: hortor, hortārī, hortātus sum.
- All passive tenses apply: hortor, hortābar, hortābor, hortātus sum …
- Translate actively: secūtus est = he followed.
- deponent verb
- passive in form, active in meaning
- hortor, hortārī, hortātus sum
- encourage
- vereor, verērī, veritus sum
- fear
- sequor, sequī, secūtus sum
- follow
- patior, patī, passus sum
- suffer, allow
- cōnor, cōnārī, cōnātus sum
- try
- proficīscor, proficīscī, profectus sum
- set out
Watch out: Translating deponents as passive: wrong: The soldiers are followed for Mīlitēs sequuntur. A deponent is active in meaning: the soldiers follow. Check the dictionary entry: if the first principal part ends in -or and the third is -us sum, it's deponent.
- Indicative = fact; subjunctive = idea (wish, purpose, possibility).
- Present subjunctive: -ē- in conjugation 1, -ā- in 2, 3 and 4.
- sum: sim, sīs, sit, sīmus, sītis, sint.
- In a main clause: a wish (fortis sit) or "let us" (proficīscāmur).
- subjunctive
- the mood for ideas: wishes, purposes, possibilities
- indicative
- the mood for facts
- mood sign
- -ē- (1st conjugation) or -ā- (others) in the present subjunctive
- sim, sīs, sit
- present subjunctive of sum
- statim
- at once
Watch out: Reading regam or audiam as future. In the first person singular of the third and fourth conjugations, the future and the present subjunctive look the same (regam, audiam). The other persons differ: future regēs, reget; subjunctive regās, regat. Let the sentence decide.
- Purpose: ut / nē / quī / quō + subjunctive.
- nē for negative purpose, never ut nōn.
- quō when the clause has a comparative.
- Latin prose never shows purpose with the infinitive.
- ut (+ subjunctive)
- in order that, so that
- nē (+ subjunctive)
- so that … not, lest
- quī (purpose)
- a relative clause of purpose: men to find
- quō (+ comparative)
- so that … the more
- purpose clause
- says why the main action is done
Watch out: Using ut nōn for a negative purpose: wrong: ut nōn capiantur. A negative purpose takes nē: nē capiantur, so that they may not be captured.
- Imperfect subjunctive = present infinitive + -m, -s, -t, -mus, -tis, -nt.
- sum: essem, essēs, esset …
- Primary main verb → present subjunctive; secondary → imperfect.
- imperfect subjunctive
- present infinitive + endings: amārem
- essem, essēs, esset
- imperfect subjunctive of sum
- primary tenses
- present, future, future perfect
- secondary tenses
- imperfect, perfect, pluperfect
- sequence of tenses
- primary goes with primary, secondary with secondary
Watch out: Keeping the present subjunctive after a past main verb: wrong: Mīsit ut vāstent. A secondary (past) main verb takes a secondary subjunctive: vāstārent.
- Perfect subjunctive: perfect stem + -erim; pluperfect: + -issem.
- Passive: participle + sim / essem.
- Order, urge, ask, persuade, advise: ut / nē + subjunctive.
- iubeō: accusative + infinitive; imperō, persuādeō: dative + ut.
- perfect subjunctive
- amāverim, amāveris …
- pluperfect subjunctive
- amāvissem, amāvissēs …
- indirect command
- ut / nē + subjunctive after ordering, urging, asking
- imperō, imperāre (+ dat.)
- order, command
- persuādeō, persuādēre (+ dat.)
- persuade
- rogō, rogāre
- ask
- pugnō, pugnāre
- fight
- discēdō, discēdere, discessī
- leave, go away
Watch out: Giving iubeō an ut clause, or imperō an infinitive. Iubeō + accusative + infinitive; imperō + dative + ut / nē + subjunctive.
- possum subjunctive: possim; possem; potuerim; potuissem.
- After fearing: nē = that / lest; ut (or nē nōn) = that … not.
- Sequence of tenses applies.
- possim, possīs, possit
- present subjunctive of possum
- timeō, timēre, timuī
- fear
- vereor, verērī, veritus sum
- fear
- nē (after fearing)
- that, lest
- ut (after fearing)
- that … not
Watch out: Translating nē as "not" after a verb of fearing: wrong: I fear that he will not come for Timeō nē veniat. After fearing, nē = that, and ut = that not.
- Present active -ns; future active -ūrus; perfect passive -us; gerundive -ndus.
- Present = same time; perfect = before; future = after.
- Deponents: perfect participle active in meaning.
- Translate with a clause: when, since, after, although, who.
- present participle
- -ns, -ntis: at the same time
- perfect participle
- -tus, -sus: before (passive)
- future participle
- -tūrus: about to
- gerundive
- -ndus: to be …ed
- currō, currere, cucurrī
- run
- morātus
- having delayed (moror, deponent)
Watch out: Translating every participle word for word with "-ing" or "having been": "the soldiers, having been conquered, did not turn their backs" is stiff English. Pick the clause that fits: when, since, after, although, who.
- volō, vīs, vult; nōlō, nōn vīs, nōn vult; mālō, māvīs, māvult.
- nōlī / nōlīte + infinitive: don't.
- Ablative absolute: noun + participle in the ablative, separate from the main clause.
- Translate as when, after, since, although, if.
- volō, velle, voluī
- wish, want
- nōlō, nōlle, nōluī
- be unwilling, not want
- mālō, mālle, māluī
- prefer
- nōlī, nōlīte + infinitive
- don't …
- ablative absolute
- noun + participle in the ablative, setting the scene
- dux, ducis, m.
- leader
- pugnō, pugnāre
- fight
- discēdō, discēdere, discessī
- leave, go away
Watch out: Putting the subject in the ablative absolute: wrong: Mīlitibus victīs fūgērunt for "the soldiers, beaten, fled". The beaten soldiers are the subject, so: Mīlitēs victī fūgērunt.
- fīō, fierī, factus sum: passive of faciō; fit has a short i.
- Result: ut / ut nōn + subjunctive, often after tam, ita, sīc, tantus.
- Purpose negative nē; result negative ut nōn.
- Translate results as facts.
- fīō, fierī, factus sum
- be made, become, happen
- result clause
- ut / ut nōn + subjunctive: so that, with the result that
- tam
- so (with adjectives and adverbs)
- ita
- so, in such a way (usually with verbs)
- tantus, -a, -um
- so great
Watch out: Translating a result clause with "might" or "in order that": wrong: so brave that the enemy might flee. A result is a fact: so brave that the enemy fled.
- Relative + indicative: fact. Relative + subjunctive: description (characteristic).
- is quī, nēmō est quī, sunt quī, nihil … quod + subjunctive.
- Making, choosing, calling: two accusatives; passive: two nominatives.
- clause of characteristic
- relative clause + subjunctive: what kind of
- is quī + subjunctive
- the kind of person to …
- sunt quī + subjunctive
- there are some who …
- predicate accusative
- second accusative after make, choose, call
- creō, creāre
- choose, elect
- appellō, appellāre
- call, name
- cōnsul, cōnsulis, m.
- consul
Watch out: Reading every subjunctive relative clause as purpose. After is, nēmō, quis, sunt, erant, a subjunctive relative usually describes: the kind of person who. Purpose relatives follow verbs of sending or choosing (mīsit quī …).
- cum = when (indicative if it only dates; subjunctive if it describes), since, although (subjunctive).
- tamen in the main clause → although.
- cum + ablative noun = with.
- Ablative of specification: in what respect.
- cum (conjunction)
- when, since, although
- cum (preposition)
- with (+ ablative)
- tamen
- yet, nevertheless
- ablative of specification
- in what respect: corpore, in body
- virtūs, virtūtis, f.
- courage
Watch out: Confusing the conjunction with the preposition. cum + ablative noun = with (cum mīlitibus). cum + a clause with a verb = when / since / although.
- Gerund: -ndī, -ndō, -ndum, -ndō; a noun.
- Gerundive: -ndus, -a, -um; agrees with a noun; preferred with an object.
- Purpose: ad + acc. or gen. + causā.
- Predicate genitive: equus est Galbae.
- gerund
- verbal noun: -ndī, -ndō, -ndum, -ndō
- gerundive
- verbal adjective -ndus, agreeing with a noun
- causā (after a genitive)
- for the sake of
- ad + gerund/gerundive
- to, for the purpose of
- predicate genitive
- equus est Galbae: the horse is Galba's
- placeō, placēre (+ dat.)
- please
Watch out: Keeping gerund + object after ad: wrong: ad videndum urbem. With an object, use the gerundive in agreement: ad urbem videndam.
- eō: eō, īs, it, īmus, ītis, eunt; īre.
- Indirect statement: accusative subject + infinitive; no word for "that".
- Present inf. = same time; perfect = earlier; future = later.
- sē refers back to the speaker.
- eō, īre, iī, itum
- go
- redeō, redīre
- return
- indirect statement
- accusative + infinitive after saying or thinking
- dīcō, dīcere, dīxī
- say
- negō, negāre
- say … not, deny
- putō, putāre
- think
- sciō, scīre
- know
- vincō, vincere, vīcī, victus
- conquer, win
- nūntiō, nūntiāre
- announce
Watch out: Changing the infinitive's tense after a past verb, as English does. Dīxit eum venīre uses the present infinitive for "he said he was coming" (same time). Only use the perfect infinitive for something earlier: dīxit eum vēnisse, he said he had come.
- ferō, ferre, tulī, lātus: fert, ferunt; irregular in the present.
- Compounds with ad, in, prae, inter … often take the dative.
- Indirect question: question word + subjunctive, sequence of tenses.
- Yes-or-no → num, whether.
- ferō, ferre, tulī, lātus
- bear, carry
- referō, referre, rettulī, relātus
- bring back; report
- īnferō (+ dat.)
- bring against; bellum īnferre, make war on
- indirect question
- question word + subjunctive after asking or knowing
- rogō, rogāre
- ask
- num (indirect)
- whether
- cūr
- why
Watch out: Using the indicative in an indirect question: wrong: Rogāvit quis vēnit. After a verb of asking or knowing, the question's verb is subjunctive: Rogāvit quis vēnisset.
- Dative of purpose, often with a dative of the person: magnō impedīmentō Gallīs.
- Description: genitive for measurements, ablative for physical features, either for other qualities; always with an adjective.
- Know the jobs of each case and each subjunctive use; name constructions by what they do.
- dative of purpose
- what something serves as: praesidiō, as a guard
- double dative
- purpose + person affected: impedīmentō Gallīs
- genitive of description
- measurements: fossa decem pedum
- ablative of description
- physical features: magnīs pedibus
- praesidium, -ī, n.
- guard, garrison
- impedīmentum, -ī, n.
- hindrance
- perterreō, perterrēre, perterruī, perterritus
- terrify
- maneō, manēre, mānsī
- stay, remain
Watch out: Naming a construction by its look, not its job. Ut can be purpose, result or indirect command; cum can be "with", "when", "since" or "although"; an ablative can be cause, means or time. Ask what the word does in the sentence.